A patient safety knowledge graph supporting vaccine product development

Background Knowledge graphs are well-suited for modeling complex, unstructured, and multi-source data and facilitating their analysis. During the COVID-19 pandemic, adverse event data were integrated into a knowledge graph to support vaccine safety surveillance and nimbly respond to urgent health authority questions. Here, we provide details of this post-marketing safety system using public data sources. In addition to challenges with varied data representations, adverse event reporting on the COVID-19 vaccines generated an unprecedented volume of data; an order of magnitude larger than adverse events for all previous vaccines. The Patient Safety Knowledge Graph (PSKG) is a robust data store to accommodate the volume of adverse event data and harmonize primary surveillance data sources. Methods We designed a semantic model to represent key safety concepts. We built an extract-transform-load (ETL) data pipeline to parse and import primary public data sources; align key elements such as vaccine names; integrated the Medical Dictionary for Regulatory Activities (MedDRA); and applied quality metrics. PSKG is deployed in a Neo4J graph database, and made available via a web interface and Application Programming Interfaces (APIs). Results We import and align adverse event data and vaccine exposure data from 250 countries on a weekly basis, producing a graph with 4,340,980 nodes and 30,544,475 edges as of July 1, 2022. PSKG is used for ad-hoc analyses and periodic reporting for several widely available COVID-19 vaccines. Analysis code using the knowledge graph is 80% shorter than an equivalent implementation written entirely in Python, and runs over 200 times faster. Conclusions Organizing safety data into a concise model of nodes, properties, and edge relationships has greatly simplified analysis code by removing complex parsing and transformation algorithms from individual analyses and instead managing these centrally. The adoption of the knowledge graph transformed how the team answers key scientific and medical questions. Whereas previously an analysis would involve aggregating and transforming primary datasets from scratch to answer a specific question, the team can now iterate easily and respond as quickly as requests evolve (e.g., “Produce vaccine-X safety profile for adverse event-Y by country instead of age-range”).

the UK on December 30, 2020, and over 2 billion doses were subsequently shipped to countries around the world in the following year [1].Key to this ambitious, global deployment was a proactive safety monitoring approach that helped the product team anticipate safety signals as patient demographics changed from the most vulnerable at-risk populations to a universal inoculation program.Drug safety data are organized around two primary categories, exposure and adverse events.Exposure data quantifies the population that has received the drug of interest, is typically captured at a geopolitical boundary, and can be stratified by various population demographics (e.g.age or sex).Adverse event data can be reported by anyone, including individuals receiving a drug, their families, or their health care providers [2,3].These reports will include the drug of interest, symptoms, and optionally other data elements such as concomitant medications and comorbidities.Exposure and adverse event data are aggregated by health authorities, and are often published as anonymized data sets.Different health authorities model their adverse event and exposure data using widely different structures, publish in different formats, and update at different frequencies.The Vaxzevria product team benefited from the active ingestion and aggregation of such health authority data sets, including both demographic profiles and spontaneous reports of adverse events for the different vaccine products.Such data provides a comprehensive, integrated view of COVID-19 vaccine safety reporting.
Adverse event and exposure data sources are summarized in Table 1.Vaccine Adverse Event Reporting System (VAERS) data contains adverse event case data for all vaccines marketed in the United States since 1990 [4,5] and is the primary reporting tool the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) uses for vaccine adverse event reporting.The European Medicines Agency (EMA) publishes adverse event data organized by substance the EudraVigilance system [6,7]; however the PSKG project focused only on COVID-19 related vaccine adverse event cases since first emergency use authorizations were granted in 2020.MedDRA [8,9] is the common terminology used in these and many other adverse event systems to codify adverse events.Exposure data for the United States is provided by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) through the data.govaccess API [10,11].Exposure data for other countries is provided by European Centre for Prevention and Disease Control (ECDC) [12,13] as well as individual health authorities.
Critical questions in drug safety involve the determination of whether or not a given adverse event occurs more frequently than expected in a given population.Answering these questions typically involve calculations of standardized measures such as a Proportional Reporting Ratio (PRR) [18], summary statistics, and visualizations.
We initially considered building a rich common object model to house and organize safety data, such as a data warehouse.However, these models are difficult to construct from asymmetric data sources especially when key analysis questions are not known up front.There are also complex data structures in the source data that are difficult to represent as tables.For example, the terms in the MedDRA dictionary are organized a multi-axial hierarchy, and Standard MedDRA Query (SMQ) lists are nested structures.EudraVigilance data are published with in-line updates, such that a given case may have multiple previous versions forming a linked-list structure.Further, a complex table design capable of accommodating these structures is challenging to query.
In contrast, a knowledge graph can be created and refined incrementally.It can represent tabular data easily and supports all the expected projection, transformation, and aggregation operations expected of a traditional query language.In addition, linked lists and hierarchies are represented directly, and queries can easily traverse these structures and extract information collected along pathways of interest.These features allowed us to iterate

Table 1 PSKG data sources formats and publication cadence
a ZIP [14] archives containing CSV [15] files, organized by year b ASCII delimited text file format c Designated Medical Events (DME) [16] and Important Medical Events (IME) lists [17]

Ontology development
We identified the primary concepts used in safety analyses and present in published data sources: cases, adverse events (as MedDRA terms), vaccines, concomitant medications, exposure (administration), and location (country and continent).Each of these concepts corresponds to a node type in the graph.Nodes were also created for the entire MedDRA term hierarchy, as well as nodes to facilitate queries grouped on arbitrary categories, such as cases reported from countries in the European Economic Association (EEA), and locally defined custom sets of MedDRA terms, (i.e., MedDRA custom queries).Finally, we added a disconnected manifest node type to enable tracking of original source files.
We defined edges between concepts based on relationships present in the source data.The goal was not to replicate all the idiosyncrasies of the individual sources, but rather to identify fundamental relationships and reify these in the model as named edges.We chose reasonably descriptive but succinct names for nodes and edges in the graph, as shown in Fig. 1.

Cases, medications, and adverse events
A case is the fundamental unit of reporting for postmarketing surveillance.It captures one or more medications, one or more adverse events not related to the patient's treatment, and a date.The medications and adverse events need not be causally linked.Cases may contain some demographic data about the underlying patient such as age, sex and location; additional demographic data varies by source.Although cases reported to a market authorization holder contain information that uniquely identifies a specific patient, published cases are Fig. 1 PSKG Ontology, depicting nodes categorized by data source, and relationship edges de-identified and multiple cases may be linked to a single patient.Adverse events are coded from free text to Med-DRA preferred terms, and the original text from which coded terms are derived may or may not be present in the source data.
Case demographic data, outcomes, and other categorical data are represented as tags or broken out as fields in source data.An ETL process maps categorical data to canonical values, and these values are stored as properties in the case node.Some demographic properties may be coded into a category, such as age groups in EudraVigilance cases.The ETL process will store the inclusive boundaries of the group into min_age and max_age within the case node, data sources with patient age in years as a discrete value will set both the min and max values to the given age.Patient sex is treated similarly, mapping codes or fields from source data into a unified value.The complete set of aligned case properties are shown in Table 2.A comprehensive list of node and relationship properties are listed in the Appendix in Tables 7  and 8.
A case is considered serious if certain outcome criteria are met, and processing of these cases are prioritized both in reports to and cases published by health authorities.In published safety data, either the entire case or adverse events within it are labeled to indicate seriousness, with each data source defining its own indicator flags or fields.The source data fields or values used to represent seriousness are mapped to a canonical set of terms and expressed as a list at the case level as illustrated in Table 3.Some fields and tags will not align between data sources, such as the ER_VISIT (Emergency Room Visit), ER_ED_VISIT (Emergency Room or Emergency Department Visit) columns in VAERS and the "Other Medically Important Condition" tag in EudraVigilance.These are still mapped to a unified outcome value to avoid using data source specific constants in analysis code.
Cases are linked to other nodes through a set of edge relationships.Each case is linked to at least one preferred MedDRA term through the :REPORTED_AE edge.Adverse events in VAERS and EudraVigilance are illustrated in Fig. 2. VAERS gathers preferred terms by case in alphabetical order, a bag-of-words approach.In contrast, EudraVigilance provides a detailed list where preferred terms can be optionally accompanied by other data such as time duration.In addition, suspect and concomitant medications may also include an indication preferred term, these are recorded in the :VACCINATED_FOR_ INDICATION or :PRESCRIBED_FOR_INDICATION edge.For EudraVigilance or other data sources that publish case updates, the :PREVIOUS_VERSION edge is used to link the current case to previously published versions.
Medications are captured as either vaccine or medication nodes, and are related to cases by the

MedDRA
MedDRA is a licensed dictionary consisting of medical terms organized in a multi-axial hierarchy.MedDRA preferred terms are used in adverse event reports throughout the world by health authorities, and curated lists of MedDRA terms are used to define diseases and adverse events.Health authorities also curate terms of interest to facilitate reporting.Each MedDRA term consists of an identifier, a name, and a type.A Preferred Term (PT) is associated with one or more Low Level Terms (LLTs).Each PT is linked to one or more High Level Terms (HLTs), where one HLT is defined as the base of the primary hierarchy.HLTs link to an High Level Group Term (HLGT), and each HLGT is linked to System Organ Class (SOC) term.Figure 2

Import pipeline
The import pipeline contains Python code to read data in their native format and transform them into a format suitable for importing into Neo4J [20].Some of these data can be automatically downloaded using API calls (such as CDC exposure), others must be manually downloaded and stored locally or in Amazon Web Services, Simple Storage Service (S3) buckets.The ETL code uses a simple object model consisting of generators and pool objects.Generator objects are rooted in an abstract class that defines fundamental methods and common structures used across data sources.Pool objects manage collections of generator objects.A summary view of a generator classes for EudraVigilance and VAERS is shown in Fig. 3. Two generator instances are created per data source, one for producing nodes and one for producing edges.Both node and edge generating classes leverage shared low level utility functions that are data source specific.Generator classes are collected into pool objects.All pool instances are gathered under a pool manager.An import script creates generator instances for all source data, and registers them with the pool object for a given node or edge type.Pool objects are then registered under a pool manager object, as illustrated for cases in Fig. 4. Once all source data generator objects are created, assigned to pools, and pools registered; the script will initiate generation of load files.In the final step, all load files are made available to a Docker container hosting Neo4J.A Cypher [21] script is used to create the graph into an empty database, and perform some basic checks to mark cases that meet quality metrics.For VAERS data, only cases where the vaccination date was after December 1, 2020 and with a Time to Onset (TTO) of less than or equal to 100 days were considered for analysis.These values were chosen to eliminate cases where the patient's birth date appeared to be entered as vaccination date, and with onset delays so long as to be unlikely related to the vaccination.

Using the graph
The PSKG graph is accessed using Cypher queries.
Cypher is a declarative pattern based query language used to extract information from a Neo4J graph database.A query consists of a series of clauses which contain Cypher statements.

Descriptive tables and statistics
Every node and edge in the graph carries a key-value dictionary for storing values, known as properties.Properties can be extracted by describing the nodes of interest using a pattern, and then specifying the desired properties in a RETURN clause.A single unqualified MATCH clause can be used to find all the nodes in a graph, and can be refined to locate specific types of nodes using a label.The match pattern can be further restricted by specifying a dictionary.Figure 5 illustrates using a MATCH clause to find Case nodes where the DataSource property is VAERS, and calculate the total number of cases.
The simple query in Fig. 5 can be revised easily to stratify by cases by vaccine.The MATCH statement is modified to find the same Case nodes as before along with links to Vaccine nodes as shown in Fig. 6.Adding one or more property values to a RETURN clause containing an aggregate function causes the aggregation to be grouped on the non-aggregated values, producing the results shown in Table 4.

Composition
Many safety questions involve looking at whether one adverse event is reported more frequently when another adverse event is reported.Each adverse event is typically defined as a set of MedDRA preferred terms.A given case would be included if one or more MedDRA preferred terms from the primary adverse event is present in the case.Given two adverse events, AE 1 and AE 2 , each of which include multiple MedDRA preferred terms, the definition of cases with both adverse events is shown as Eq. 1.The definition of cases with AE 1 and without AE 2 is shown as Eq. 2.
In PSKG, these same cases can be identified using Cypher queries.Figure 7 illustrates finding all cases that include AE 1 or AE 2 .Figure 8 illustrates finding all cases with AE 1 and without AE 2 .As mentioned earlier, Cypher statements can produce a graph result, which can then be processed by subsequent statements using chaining.This is illustrated in Fig. 9.Here a simple (1) Fig. 5 Minimal Cypher query to count all VAERS vaccine cases Fig. 6 Stratifying VAERS vaccine cases by vaccine type, and returning the results ordered by descending number of cases query identifies the top five most frequently occurring adverse event terms, and passes this result to a second statement which then projects demographic information and counts cases involving these terms.A more complex example would be to identify a set of cases and stratify by concomitant medication and comorbidities, this is shown in Fig. 10.Here a simple filter can be used to identify cases in an inclusion set, and then count cases stratified by medications and indications.

Querying meta data
In addition to finding data contained within the graph, the graph structure itself can be queried using Cypher.In Fig. 11, the query gathers ExposureData nodes and extracts all property keys, excluding keys not associated with stratification.A sample result from this query is shown in Table 5.The power of this query is that it will continue to function and return complete results, even if a new source of exposure data is added to the import pipeline.

Table 4
The top ten highest numbers of adverse event cases reported by vaccine.The number of COVID-19 vaccination case reports eclipsed those of the second place Varicella-zoster vaccine by an order of magnitude, and is over 12 times as many reports for third place trivalent influenza vaccine, despite having been administered yearly since 1990

Graph
As of July 1, 2022 the graph contains 4,340,980 nodes and 30,544,475 edges.The breakdown of nodes and edge types are given in Table 6.Despite including over 30 years of VAERS data, the vast majority of vaccine safety information involves COVID-19 vaccines as shown in Fig. 12.
Fig. 9 Identifying the most frequently reported adverse event terms, and then case counts (stratified by age and sex).An initial MATCH statement result finds the top reported adverse event terms, and is chained to an additional clause that extracts stratified case counts Fig. 10 Example investigation of concomitant medications and related conditions.Here a simplistic inclusion criteria (cases with more than one adverse event term) are extracted and matched to concomitant medications and related indications, and the number of cases are summarized by indication, medication Fig. 11 Finding available stratification for exposure data

Parsing versus analysis
PSKG significantly reduced the size and complexity of analyses by refactoring parsing and cleaning code.Prior to creating the PSKG, safety scientists built custom analyses to answer specific questions.These analyses, written in Python or R, would load source data into a table structure [22,23], perform some data cleaning, and then produce result artifact such as a table or figure.This model was adequate when source data were small, updated infrequently, and only a few analyses were needed.COVID-19 changed all these assumptions.Data sources published new data weekly or even daily, and the volume of COVID-19 vaccine eclipsed other vaccines by an order of magnitude.

Reduction in size
A primary driver for PSKG is a complex weekly report that creates analyses based on VAERS and EudraVigilance adverse event data; and CDC and ECDC exposure data.Figure 13 illustrates the parsing and transformation processing steps involved for extracting adverse event cases into a DataFrame for EudraVigilance.The EudraVigilance export format is tabular, with one row per case.However, critical columns with suspect and concomitant drugs, as well as coded reaction terms contain multiple values per row.These complex columns must be restructured, first splitting values into lists which can be processed.Drug name variations (in this case COVID-19 vaccines) are mapped to a common name, and serious terms are split and parsed into a set.Reaction list terms are similarly split and parsed, yielding preferred terms and outcomes.Similar parsing and transformation steps are performed  for each of the other data sources.When these processing steps were refactored out of the weekly analysis code and into PSKG import pipeline, the total lines of analysis code were reduced by nearly 80%.Similar reductions were seen in other analyses adapted to use PSKG, making the entire code base easier to maintain.

Reduction in runtime
At the onset of the pandemic, data from VAERS and EudraVigilance could be loaded, parsed and analyzed using native Python in under 20 minutes.By the summer of 2021, this time had grown to nearly 2 hours and often exceeded the capabilities of analysis laptops.Moving the loading and parsing code to the import pipeline reduced the time to produce the analyses to under 7 minutes.

Flexible structure
EudraVigilance, ECDC, and other exposure sources were added incrementally by aligning their data to the existing ontology structure, and extending the ontology to accommodate new relationships or concepts.In many cases extensions were made without impacting existing queries.For example, new concepts such as medication indications in EudraVigilance were added by simply defining new links (:PREVIOUS_VERSION, :VACCINATED_FOR_INDICATION, :MEDICATED_ FOR_INDICATION) to the graph.The flexibility to easily accommodate new data sources while simultaneously maintaining compatibility was a significant improvement.

Discussion
Safety questions and analyses are developed iteratively.The initial question may call for a number of cases that are associated with a set of MedDRA preferred terms.Later, those cases may need to be stratified by age, sex, or time to onset; and perhaps conditioning on different sets of preferred terms.More often than not, results from an analysis may need to be repeated at regular intervals to monitor trends.Except in the simplest cases, analyses to answer safety questions involve the development of programs written in Python or R.These programs can be decomposed functionally into parsing, filtering, calculations, and output.In theory, the majority of the work in these programs should be the calculations.In practice, data parsing dominates all other components.The primary reasons for this are data complexity and data quality.Data sources contain complex structures including hierarchies, linked lists, and dictionaries that are encoded in vastly different formats.Data elements may be missing, contain invalid values, or deviate from published documentation.
The urgent nature of safety questions makes it tempting to quickly write programs that minimally parse a data set and transform it only enough to perform an analysis.As time goes on more and more analyses are written, parsing functions are recreated from scratch or copied from other analyses.This causes the underlying code to become very brittle-tightly coupled to a given data source and with new bugs introduced or old bugs carried along from copied sources.COVID-19 vaccine data amplified these issues, bringing unprecedented volumes of adverse event data and administration data.
Early in the pandemic analyses were written in Python or R to answer specific questions based on VAERS data.VAERS data is published as zip files by year, containing three comma-separated value files for case data, vaccine data, and symptom data respectively.VAERS data were originally updated quarterly, but the update frequency increased to weekly starting in late 2020.The structure of VAERS data is shown in Fig. 14, and initially was loaded Fig. 13 Parsing and analyzing data in EudraVigilance.EudraVigilance data are produced in a tabular form, but columns can contain complex values.Simple columns can be projected directly (e.g.Report Type), other columns such as suspect and concomitant drugs must be restructured.A typical flow is illustrated here showing the projection of simple columns to the result set, along with additional processing of multi-valued fields, some of which are combined (e.g.Outcomes and Seriousness) in to Python as Pandas DataFrames [23, 24] with some limited transformation.Files for each year of interest can be loaded individually and then concatenated into a combined DataFrame.Pandas merge functions could then be used to query across cases, vaccines, and symptoms.
Analyses typically required iterative refining of adverse event scope to identify the most specific terms that encompassed the variety of clinical presentations associated with an event.For example, a question called for the total number of cases that showed symptoms of a Guillain-Barré Syndrome (GBS).An approach to answer this using only Pandas would be to mark cases that had any MedDRA terms associated with GBS, and a group by function with named aggregates could count up the cases.This approach becomes more challenging when investigating comorbidities, especially when conditions involve hundreds of terms.
As the question evolved, the analysis code became more complicated.For example, TTO became of interest, and analyses were parameterized to various constants such as 21 days and 14 days.Many VAERS results have invalid TTO values due to incorrect reporting dates (e.g. a birth date entered as vaccination date), these records needed to be systematically removed from consideration.Results were requested on a weekly basis, and needed to be aligned with exposure (administration) data.A separate program was developed to gather these data from the CDC data tracker website and run on a daily basis, until these data were made available using an API.
Analyses specific to countries in the EEA utilized data from EudraVigilance, which is produced by the EMA.EudraVigilance data also tracks adverse events, but in a very different structure that is illustrated in Fig. 15.EudraVigilance data are published in Line Listing format, which is a row oriented schema which can be saved as Comma Separated Value (CSV) or Extensible Markup Language (XML) files.However, the data cannot simply be loaded into a table as there are three multi-valued columns, and each value in these columns must be parsed using regular expressions.EudraVigilance data can Fig. 14 VAERS case structure illustrating how vaccination records and symptoms are linked to a case Fig. 15 EudraVigilance case structure illustrating the reaction list preferred term(s), suspect and concomitant medication(s), and optional indication preferred terms contain duplicate records, which are actually updates differentiated by a receipt date.An added challenge is the system producing the line listing format is limited in the number of records it can produce in one query, and will silently truncate the results when the limit is exceeded.Thus files must be requested in chunks and reassembled in the analysis.Exposure data is produced for EEA countries by ECDC.
The first analysis was expanded to accommodate EudraVigilance and associated exposure data, but essentially had to model and parse all four different data sources into Pandas DataFrames, and then calculate various summaries and plots.Even factoring common code into packages, the code base was large and difficult to maintain.This made adding new analyses difficult, and the time spent loading and processing source data eventually grew to nearly an hour and became difficult to run on a standard analysis laptop.Although there were several avenues to consider for optimization, it was still difficult and time consuming to add new analyses or even to do exploratory work as it required intimate knowledge of each individual data source and how it was represented in DataFrames.
We considered several Business Intelligence (BI) options, but the work of assembling a relational model that could accommodate all the diverse structures found in the source data was a challenge.An On-line Analysis Processing (OLAP) dimensional style schema could be designed based on the data sets we knew about, but there are many more data sets produced by other health authorities or specific countries that would have their own unique structures.Other NoSQL solutions such as columnar stores or a Spark approach were problematic [25,26], as they still involved mapping properties to a tabular structures not unlike DataFrames.This would result in very sparse tables or building out multi-valued columns that would need to be parsed and processed by client applications.A knowledge graph provided an elegant solution to address all of these issues, and allowed us to develop and refine the data model iteratively.
Finally, there was the question of global trends in the safety data.While individual countries' health authorities may restrict their requests just to cases within a geo-political boundary, the overall safety profile of the product was a very important question for safety teams monitoring the vaccine rollout.Such global analysis and monitoring would be impossible without a common data model that is capable of combining and organizing data from multiple disparate data sources.This became particularly important due to the nature and speed of global vaccination programs.PSKG was instrumental for amplifying signals from multiple data sources and finding common safety trends across stratification such as age, race, sex, and concomitant medications that may otherwise have been overlooked from the individual data sources that did not share a common object model.

Conclusions and future work
The COVID-19 pandemic prompted an unprecedented increase in the volume and frequency of public vaccine data reporting by health authorities.There is a wealth of information to be found in these data; however, this value is challenging to extract due to complex file formats and the sheer volume of data being published.In this paper we present the PSKG, a knowledge graph for organizing and analyzing vaccine safety data.We demonstrate that safety data from multiple public sources can be aligned and loaded into a graph model.Further, we show that the PSKG can both accommodate large volumes of safety data; and that analysis programs using the graph are significantly faster and easier to maintain than analysis programs bound to specific source data formats.
We intend to continue developing PSKG to accommodate additional types and sources of data, and to improve import performance.Some examples of available public data not currently loaded, and complementing existing sources in the graph, include population metrics on hospitalization, death, as well as demographics (race, age, ethnicity) of people receiving vaccinations.There are also many countries whose exposure data and vaccination data are not currently imported.Another important improvement will be the adoption of a unifying drug ontology to better align adverse event sources.We plan to expand the geocoding hierarchy, in order to more easily accommodate data stratified on political boundaries within countries such as states and counties.Many data sources such as VAERS also provide unstructured free-text fields containing case-level information such as patient comorbidities and provide additional context that could help establish causal links between adverse events and vaccines.This information is currently being investigated and a plan is being developed for using Natural Language Processing (NLP) machine learning models to extract, process, and normalize this data into the graph data model.We are particularly interested in enriching the Medication node and adding in Comorbidity nodes using this data.State-of-the-art NLP models have been trained on clinical data, such as BioBERT [27] and Clinical BERT [28,29].These models have been found to perform well on clinical datasets like Mimic-III [30] and can be fine-tuned for the task of extracting information from patient safety datasets.
Recent advances in graph machine learning techniques allow for tasks like link prediction on very large graphs.While the primary goal of PSKG was to support safety scientists in answering regulatory queries efficiently, the scope of this project can be expanded to pharmacovigilance.Causal and explainable link prediction algorithms could be used, not just to flag potential vaccine/adverseevent interactions but provide safety scientists with evidence within the graph for the existence of such links.Some work on adverse event prediction has been done using systems biology and mechanistic networks [31] while others have taken statistical data driven approaches using omics, social media, and electronic medical records (EMRs) [32].More recently, the use of knowledge graphs for adverse event detection using patient health records [33], and clinical trial data [34] has gained traction.PSKG has the unique advantage of being constructed primarily using openly available data (although there are internal exposure nodes making up < 0.3 of the total node count), thereby allowing the broader research community to develop graph machine learning algorithms and derive insights from this dataset.The increasing volume of data in both new and existing sources will eventually require significant performance improvements in the import pipeline.These improvements will most likely center around exploiting numerous opportunities for parallelism in transforming and importing source data.We hope to collaborate with the broader research community to make these and other improvements available on a regular basis.We also encourage collaboration on PSKG for developing novel explainable link prediction algorithms for post-marketing safety analysis.While considerable work has been done on graph link prediction [35], we have found that research focused on explainability of links like [36] and [37] is ripe for further advancement, particularly for healthcare applications.We aim to develop such novel models for explainable link prediction to make PSKG a truly proactive solution to pharmacovigilance and real-world drug safety monitoring.

Fig. 3 Fig. 4
Fig.3PSKG Generator class actions.Each generator reads from raw source data, assigns identifiers, align outcomes, and performs type conversions (e.g.strings to datetimes)

Fig. 7 Fig.
Fig.7that include two adverse events (as defined by multiple preferred terms)

Table 3
Alignment of seriousness criteria and outcomes in source data [19]INISTERED or :PRESCRIBED links, respectively.Both medication node types include a brand name and generic name, an optional RxNorm concept unique identifier (RxCUI), and descriptive fields[19].The ETL process performs rudimentary linking of drug and vaccine names from the primary adverse event data sources, VAERS and EudraVigilance; with VAERS vaccine names taking precedence.The :ADMINISTERED and :PRE-SCRIBED links include information date information when present in the source date, such as vaccination dates in VAERS (VAX_DATE).ExposureExposure is a population based metric that captures the number of doses administered for a given drug.These data are typically published for a geopolitical boundary, such as a country or administrative division (province, state, county, canton) and may or may not include additional demographic stratification such as age, sex, race, ethnicity, etc.For COVID-19 vaccines requiring multiple doses, many sources provide a notion of first dose, and complete series as indicators.However, the utility of consolidated "complete" indicators were somewhat problematic as the definition of a complete dose series evolved from either one or two doses to adding boosters.Sources varied significantly in available stratification.For example, in the United States (US) the CDC provides vaccinations by vaccine type to the state and county level, and separately provides various stratification by age, sex, race for all vaccines combined.ECDC provides target group stratification, and specific categories include age ranges that vary by country as well as breaking out healthcare workers and residents of long-term care facilities.At a minimum an exposure data source is expected to provide a specific vaccine, a cumulative count of doses administered, and a country.These data are used to create ExposureData nodes and link them to the corresponding Vaccine and Country.
EudraVigilance and VAERS high-level native structure, and links to MedDRA based reporting.Country nodes contain basic properties such as name and International Standards Organization (ISO) abbreviations, Continents are manually curated and linked to Country node using the :IN edge.CaseGroup is used to gather case grouping information from source data, usually involving some minor transformation.For example, EudraVigilance provides a field called "Primary Source Country for Regulatory Purposes" which contains one of two fixed strings that indicate if a case originated in the EEA.This is represented in the model as an EEA or Non-EEA node, and linked to the corresponding cases.Finally Manifest nodes are used to capture information about the source data, such as the names of downloaded files and modification dates.Manifest nodes are not linked to other concepts in the graph.
outlines this hierarchy.Standard MedDRA Queries (SMQs) are curated sets of terms.An SMQ consists of a name, a description, and links to specific preferred terms or to other SMQs.All term types and SMQs are modeled as nodes, with properties for the names and descriptions.A :MEDDRA_SMQ_ CONTAINS edge is used to link SMQs to other SMQs or to specific PTs.All other links are modeled using the :MEDDRA_LINK edge.MeddraCq nodes are Geography, CaseGroup, Manifest The remaining nodes in the model are Country, Continent, CaseGroup, and Manifest.Country and Continent form a simple geographic hierarchy to facilitate countryFig. 2 The initial clause is applied to the entire graph, subsequent clauses operate on the results of the previous clause.The principal statements used in clauses are MATCH and RETURN.In the simplest case, MATCH takes a pattern argument describing nodes of interest and uses a RETURN statement to specify the structure of the result set matching the pattern.A RETURN statement can directly project nodes, edges, or properties; as well as apply functions to transform results.Multiple clauses can be chained together simply by writing them sequentially.If it is necessary to calculate an interim result or helpful to only project certain values to a subsequent clause, a WITH statement can be used like RETURN to specify the precise values to pass forward.Chaining allows complex queries to be decomposed into a sequence of simple steps.The full feature set and syntax of Cypher is described elsewhere.

Table 5
Limited sample output from the query in Fig.6illustrating available stratification by vaccine and country

Table 6
Summary of PSKG Nodes and Edges as of July 1, 2022 12g.12Adverse events reported in VAERS over 30 years